[12] Torcaso v. Watkins,367 U. S. 488,495,n. 11 ( 1961) . [13] 参见刘澎: 《当代美国宗教》,社会科学文献出版社 2001 年版。 [14] Daniel A. Farber,The First Amendment,Third Edition,Foundation Press 2010,p. 249. [15] Ekaterina Stepanova,Terrorism in asymmetrical conflict: ideological and structural aspects,Oxford University Press 2008,p. 85. [16] T. Jeremy Gunn,The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of “Religion”in International Law,16 Harvard Human Rights Journal 189 ( 2003) . [17] 整体上来说,美国法院对伊斯兰教的认识游走在两种观点之间: 一种把伊斯兰教认为是稀奇古怪的、原始的、一般美国人都不会信的宗教; 另一种则认为伊斯兰教徒也是真诚的信徒,应和其它传统宗教一样享受平等对待。参见Richard Freeland,The Treatment of Muslims in American Courts,12 Islam & Christian-Muslin Religion 449 ( 2001) 。 [18] Marie A. Failinger,Islam in the Mind of American Courts: 1800 to 1890,32 Boston College Journal of Law & Social Justice 1 ( 2012) . [19] New York Trust Co. v. Eisner,256 U. S. 345,349 ( 1921) . [20] 参见 Chester James Antieau,Constitutional Construction,Oceana Publications,1982. [21] 参见[美]麦迪逊: 《辩论: 美国制宪会议记录》,尹宣译,辽宁教育出版社 2003 年版。 [22] [美]小约翰•威特: 《宗教与美国宪政经验》( 附录 1) ,宋华琳译,上海三联书店 2011 年版,第 287 -290 页。 [23] 同上注,第 52 页。 [24] Everson v. Board of Education,330 U. S. 1,15 ( 1947) . 随后的判决基本都认可了这一点,参见 Torcaso v. Watkins,367 U. S. 488,495 ( 1961) ; Epperson v. Arkansas,393 U. S. 97,103 ( 1968) ; Walz v. Tax Comm’n,397 U. S. 664,670 ( 1970) 。 [25] Michael G. Sanderson,Objective Criteria for Defining Religion for the First Amendment: Malnak v. Yogi,11 Toledo Law Review,990 ( 1980) . [26] [美]托马斯•杰弗逊: 《杰弗逊选集》,朱曾汶译,商务印书馆 2011 年版,第 308 页。 [27] 同上注,第 328 页。 [28] Madison,A Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments,转引自 Everson v. Board of Education,330 U. S. 1,64 ( 1947) . [29] 相关介绍参见[美]约翰•艾兹摩尔: 《美国宪法的基督教背景: 开国先父的信仰和选择》,李婉玲等译,中央编译出版社 2011 年版。 [30] Brest,The Misconceived Quest for the Original Understanding,60 B. U. L. REV. 204,214 - 217 ( 1980) ; Tushnet,Following the Rules Laid Down: A Critique of Interpretivism and Neutral Principles,96 HARV. L. REV. 781,798 - 804 ( 1983) . [31] Davis v. Beason,133 U. S. 333,342 ( 1890) . [32] United States v. Macintosh,283 U. S. 605,633 ( 1931) . [33] United States v. Ballard,322 U. S. 78,86 ( 1944) . [34] Fowler v. Rhode Island,345 U. S. 67,69 ( 1953) . [35] Torcaso v. Watkins,367 U. S. 488,495,n. 11 ( 1961) . [36] United States v. Seeger,380 U. S. 163,165 ( 1965) . [37] Welsh v. United States,398 U. S. 333,343 ( 1970) . [38] Wisconsin v. Yoder,406 U. S. 205,215 ( 1972) . [39] Thomas v. Review Bd. Of the Indiana Employment Security Div. ,450 U. S. 707,715 ( 1981) . [40] 《新约•马太福音》7: 7。 [41] Malnak v. Yogi,440 F. Supp. 1248 ( D. N. J. 1977) ,aff’d per curiam,592 F. 2d 197 ( 3d Cir. 1979) . [42] Fellowship of Humanity v. County of Alameda,153 Cal. App. 2d 673,315 P. 2d 394 ( Ct. App. 1957) . [43] Founding Church of Scientology v. United States,409 F. 2d 1146 ( D. C. Cir. 1969) . [44] Malnak v. Yogi,440 F. Supp. At 1315 ( D. N. J. 1977) . [45] Africa v. Pennsylvania,662 F. 2d 1025 ( 3d Cir. 1981) . [46] United States v. Meyers,95 F. 3d 1475 ( 10thCir. 1996) . [47] Brown v. Dade Christian Schools,Inc. ,556 F. 2d 310 ( 5thCir. 1977) . [48] 赵晓力: 《美国宪法的原旨解释》,载《宪法与公民》,上海人民出版社 2004 年版,第 380 页。 [49] 参见前引[8],Freeman 文,第 1521 页。 [50] James M. Donovan,God Is as God Does: Law Anthropology,and the Definition of“Religion”,6 Seton Hall Const. L. J. 25( 1995) ; Eduardo Penalver,The Concept of Religion,107 YALE L. J. 791 ( 1997) ; Lee J. Strang,The Meaning of“Religion”in the First Amendment,40 DUQ. L. REV. 181 ( 2002) .
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